what do you think of benjamin franklins letter to maxwell on electromagnetism

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Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics lists, inside the history of electromagnetism, the associated theories, technology, and events.

Early on developments [edit]

• 28th century BC – Ancient Egyptian texts describe electrical fish. They refer to them as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other fish.^[i]
• 6th century BC – Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus observes that rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber, would crusade an attraction between the 2, which is at present known to be caused past static electricity. He noted that rubbing the amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair and that if the bister was rubbed sufficiently a spark would spring.^{[2] [3]}
• 424 BC Aristophanes' "lens" is a glass earth filled with h2o.(Seneca says that information technology can be used to read letters no matter how small or dim)^[4]
• quaternary century BC Mo Di commencement mentions the camera obscura, a pivot-hole camera.
• 3rd century BC Euclid is the offset to write about reflection and refraction and notes that calorie-free travels in direct lines^[4]
• tertiary century BC – The Baghdad Battery is dated from this period. It resembles a galvanic cell and is believed by some to have been used for electroplating, although there is no mutual consensus on the purpose of these devices nor whether they were, indeed, even electrical in nature.^[5]
• 1st century Ad – Pliny in his Natural History records the story of a shepherd Magnes who discovered the magnetic properties of some fe stones, "it is said, made this discovery, when, upon taking his herds to pasture, he plant that the nails of his shoes and the iron ferrel of his staff adhered to the ground."^[6]
• 130 Advertizement. – Claudius Ptolemy (in his work Optics) wrote about the properties of light including: reflection, refraction, and color and tabulated angles of refraction for several media
• eighth century Advertizement – Electric fish are reported past Arabic naturalists and physicians.^[ane]
• 1021 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) writes the Book of Optics, studying vision.
• 1088 – Shen Kuo first recognizes magnetic declination.
• 1187 – Alexander Neckham is commencement in Europe to draw the magnetic compass and its apply in navigation.
• 1269 – Pierre de Maricourt describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles
• 1282 – Al-Ashraf Umar 2 discusses the properties of magnets and dry compasses in relation to finding qibla.^[7]
• 1305 – Dietrich von Freiberg uses crystalline spheres and flasks filled with water to written report the reflection and refraction in raindrops that leads to primary and secondary rainbows
• 14th century AD – Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic give-and-take for lightning (raad) practical to the electric ray.^[8]
• 1550 – Gerolamo Cardano writes about electricity in De Subtilitate distinguishing, mayhap for the get-go time, betwixt electrical and magnetic forces.^{[ citation needed ]}

17th century [edit]

• 1600 – William Gilbert publishes De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure ("On the Magnet and Magnetic bodies, and on that Great Magnet the Earth"), Europe'southward then current standard on electricity and magnetism. He experimented with and noted the different character of electric and magnetic forces. In addition to known ancient Greeks' observations of the electrical backdrop of rubbed bister, he experimented with a needle balanced on a pivot, and found that the needle was non-directionally affected past many materials such equally alum, arsenic, hard resin, jet, glass, gum-mastic, mica, rock-salt, sealing wax, slags, sulfur, and precious stones such equally amethyst, beryl, diamond, opal, and sapphire. He noted that electric charge could exist stored by covering the body with a non-conducting substance such as silk. He described the method of artificially magnetizing iron. His terrella (piffling earth), a sphere cut from a lodestone on a metallic lathe, modeled the globe equally a lodestone (magnetic fe ore) and demonstrated that every lodestone has fixed poles, and how to notice them.^[9] He considered that gravity was a magnetic force and noted that this mutual force increased with the size or corporeality of lodestone and attracted iron objects. He experimented with such concrete models in an try to explain problems in navigation due varying properties of the magnetic compass with respect to their location on the earth, such as magnetic declination and magnetic inclination. His experiments explained the dipping of the needle by the magnetic attraction of the earth, and were used to predict where the vertical dip would exist institute. Such magnetic inclination was described as early equally the 11th century by Shen Kuo in his Meng Xi Bi Tan and farther investigated in 1581 past retired mariner and compass maker Robert Norman, as described in his pamphlet, The Newe Bonny. The gilbert, a unit of measurement of magnetomotive force or magnetic scalar potential, was named in his accolade.
• 1604 – Johannes Kepler describes how the eye focuses light
• 1604 – Johannes Kepler specifies the laws of the rectilinear propagation of calorie-free
• 1608 – beginning telescopes announced in the Netherlands
• 1611 – Marko Dominis discusses the rainbow in De Radiis Visus et Lucis
• 1611 – Johannes Kepler discovers total internal reflection, a small-bending refraction constabulary, and thin lens eyes,
• c1620 – the offset compound microscopes appear in Europe.^[10]
• 1621 – Willebrord van Roijen Snell states his Snell's law of refraction
• 1630 – Cabaeus finds that there are two types of electric charges
• 1637 – René Descartes quantitatively derives the angles at which chief and secondary rainbows are seen with respect to the angle of the Sun'due south elevation
• 1646 – Sir Thomas Browne beginning uses the word electricity is in his piece of work Pseudodoxia Epidemica.
• 1657 – Pierre de Fermat introduces the principle of least time into optics
• 1660 – Otto von Guericke invents an early on electrostatic generator.
• 1663 – Otto von Guericke (brewer and engineer who applied the barometer to weather prediction and invented the air pump, with which he demonstrated the properties of atmospheric pressure level associated with a vacuum) constructs a primitive electrostatic generating (or friction) machine via the triboelectric effect, utilizing a continuously rotating sulfur world that could be rubbed by hand or a piece of textile. Isaac Newton suggested the use of a drinking glass globe instead of a sulfur i.
• 1665 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi highlights the phenomenon of diffraction
• 1673 – Ignace Pardies provides a wave caption for refraction of light
• 1675 – Robert Boyle discovers that electric attraction and repulsion can human activity across a vacuum and do not depend upon the air as a medium. Adds resin to the known list of "electrics."
• 1675 – Isaac Newton delivers his theory of light
• 1676 – Olaus Roemer measures the speed of light by observing Jupiter's moons
• 1678 – Christiaan Huygens states his principle of wavefront sources and demonstrates the refraction and diffraction of low-cal rays.

18th century [edit]

• 1704 – Isaac Newton publishes Opticks, a corpuscular theory of low-cal and colour
• 1705 – Francis Hauksbee improves von Guericke's electrostatic generator by using a glass globe and generates the first sparks by approaching his finger to the rubbed earth.
• 1728 – James Bradley discovers the abnormality of starlight and uses it to make up one's mind that the speed of light is nigh 283,000 km/south
• 1729 – Stephen Gray and the Reverend Granville Wheler experiment to detect that electrical "virtue", produced by rubbing a glass tube, could be transmitted over an extended distance (most 900 ft (virtually 270 m)) through thin iron wire using silk threads as insulators, to deflect leaves of brass. This has been described as the beginning of electrical communication.^{[11] [ page needed ]} This was likewise the first distinction between the roles of conductors and insulators (names applied by John Desaguliers, mathematician and Regal Society member, who stated that Gray "has made greater variety of electric experiments than all the philosophers of this and the final historic period.")^{[11] [ page needed ]} Georges-Louis LeSage congenital a static electricity telegraph in 1774, based upon the same principles discovered past Grayness.
• 1732 – C. F. du Fay Shows that all objects, except metals, animals, and liquids, tin exist electrified by rubbing them and that metals, animals and liquids could be electrified by means of an electrostatic generators
• 1734 – Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (inspired by Greyness's work to perform electrical experiments) dispels the effluvia theory by his paper in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Regal Society, describing his discovery of the distinction betwixt two kinds of electricity: "resinous", produced past rubbing bodies such as bister, copal, or gum-lac with silk or newspaper, and "vitreous", by rubbing bodies as glass, rock crystal, or precious stones with hair or wool. He as well posited the principle of common attraction for dissimilar forms and the repelling of similar forms and that "from this principle one may with ease deduce the caption of a great number of other phenomena." The terms resinous and vitreous were later replaced with the terms "positive" and "negative" by William Watson and Benjamin Franklin.
• 1737 – C. F. du Fay and Francis Hauksbee the younger^{[ citation needed ]} independently notice two kinds of frictional electricity: 1 generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin (afterward identified as positive and negative electrical charges).
• 1740 – Jean le Rond d'Alembert, in Mémoire sur la réfraction des corps solides, explains the process of refraction.
• 1745 – Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) independently discovers the Leyden (Leiden) jar, a primitive capacitor or "condenser" (term coined by Volta in 1782, derived from the Italian condensatore), with which the transient electric energy generated by current friction machines could now be stored. He and his student Andreas Cunaeus used a glass jar filled with water into which a contumely rod had been placed. He charged the jar by touching a wire leading from the electrical car with one hand while property the outside of the jar with the other. The energy could exist discharged past completing an external circuit between the contumely rod and another conductor, originally his hand, placed in contact with the exterior of the jar. He also constitute that if the jar were placed on a piece of metal on a table, a shock would be received by touching this piece of metallic with one hand and touching the wire connected to the electric machine with the other.
• 1745 – Ewald Georg von Kleist of independently invents the capacitor: a drinking glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the hat and concluded in a metal sphere. By having this sparse layer of glass insulation (a dielectric) between 2 large, closely spaced plates, von Kleist plant the energy density could be increased dramatically compared with the situation with no insulator. Daniel Gralath improved the blueprint and was also the first to combine several jars to class a battery strong enough to kill birds and small animals upon discharge.
• 1746 – Leonhard Euler develops the wave theory of light refraction and dispersion
• 1747 – William Watson, while experimenting with a Leyden jar, observes that a discharge of static electricity causes electric current to menstruum and develops the concept of an electrical potential (voltage).
• 1752 – Benjamin Franklin establishes the link betwixt lightning and electricity past the flying a kite into a thunderstorm and transferring some of the accuse into a Leyden jar and showed that its properties were the same as charge produced by an electrical machine. He is credited with utilizing the concepts of positive and negative accuse in the explanation of so known electrical phenomenon. He theorized that there was an electrical fluid (which he proposed could be the luminiferous ether, which was used by others before and after him, to explain the moving ridge theory of light) that was part of all fabric and all intervening space. The charge of whatever object would be neutral if the concentration of this fluid were the same both inside and outside of the trunk, positive if the object contained an excess of this fluid, and negative if in that location were a arrears. In 1749 he had documented the similar properties of lightning and electricity, such as that both an electric spark and a lightning flash produced light and sound, could kill animals, cause fires, cook metallic, destroy or contrary the polarity of magnetism, and flowed through conductors and could be full-bodied at sharp points. He was later able to employ the property of concentrating at abrupt points by his invention of the lightning rod, for which he intentionally did not turn a profit. He also investigated the Leyden jar, proving that the accuse was stored on the glass and not in the water, equally others had assumed.
• 1753 – C. M. (of Scotland, possibly Charles Morrison, of Greenock or Charles Marshall, of Aberdeen) proposes in 17 February edition of Scots Magazine, an electrostatic telegraph arrangement with 26 insulated wires, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet and each connected to electrostatic machines. The receiving charged end was to electrostatically attract a disc of newspaper marked with the respective letter of the alphabet.
• 1767 – Joseph Priestley proposes an electrical inverse-square law
• 1774 – Georges-Louis LeSage builds an electrostatic telegraph organization with 26 insulated wires conducting Leyden-jar charges to pith-ball electroscopes, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet. Its range was only between rooms of his abode.
• 1784 – Henry Cavendish defines the inductive capacity of dielectrics (insulators) and measures the specific inductive capacity of various substances by comparison with an air condenser.
• 1785 – Charles Coulomb introduces the inverse-square police of electrostatics
• 1786 – Luigi Galvani discovers "beast electricity" and postulates that animal bodies are storehouses of electricity. His invention of the voltaic cell leads to the invention the electric battery.
• 1791 – Luigi Galvani discovers galvanic electricity and bioelectricity through experiments following an observation that touching exposed muscles in frogs' legs with a scalpel which had been shut to a static electric machine caused them to leap. He called this "creature electricity". Years of experimentation in the 1780s eventually led him to the construction of an arc of two different metals (copper and zinc for example) by connecting the two metallic pieces and so connecting their open up ends across the nervus of a frog leg, producing the same muscular contractions (by completing a circuit) as originally accidentally observed. The use of different metals to produce an electrical spark is the basis that led Alessandro Volta in 1799 to his invention of his voltaic pile, which eventually became the galvanic battery.^[12]
• 1799 – Alessandro Volta, post-obit Galvani'southward discovery of galvanic electricity, creates a voltaic jail cell producing an electric current past the chemic activity of several pairs of alternating copper (or silver) and zinc discs "piled" and separated by cloth or cardboard which had been soaked brine (common salt water) or acrid to increase conductivity. In 1800 he demonstrates the production of light from a glowing wire conducting electricity. This was followed in 1801 by his construction of the first electrical battery, by utilizing multiple voltaic cells. Prior to his major discoveries, in a letter of the alphabet of praise to the Royal Gild 1793, Volta reported Luigi Galvani's experiments of the 1780s as the "well-nigh beautiful and of import discoveries", regarding them as the foundation of future discoveries. Volta'due south inventions led to revolutionary changes with this method of the production of cheap, controlled electric current vs. existing frictional machines and Leyden jars. The electric bombardment became standard equipment in every experimental laboratory and heralded an age of practical applications of electricity.^{[11] [ page needed ]} The unit volt is named for his contributions.
• 1800 – William Herschel discovers infrared radiation from the Sunday.
• 1800 – William Nicholson, Anthony Carlisle and Johann Ritter utilise electricity to decompose h2o into hydrogen and oxygen, thereby discovering the process of electrolysis, which led to the discovery of many other elements.
• 1800 – Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, or "battery", specifically to disprove Galvani's animal electricity theory.

19th century [edit]

1801–1850 [edit]

• 1801 – Johann Ritter discovers ultraviolet radiation from the Sun
• 1801 – Thomas Young demonstrates the wave nature of lite and the principle of interference^[xiii]
• 1802 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian legal scholar, discovers that electricity and magnetism are related by noting that a nearby voltaic pile deflects a magnetic needle. He published his account in an Italian newspaper, but this was disregarded past the scientific community.^[fourteen]
• 1803 – Thomas Immature develops the Double-slit experiment and demonstrates the issue of interference.^[15]
• 1806 – Alessandro Volta employs a voltaic pile to decompose potash and soda, showing that they are the oxides of the previously unknown metals potassium and sodium. These experiments were the beginning of electrochemistry.
• 1808 – Étienne-Louis Malus discovers polarization by reflection
• 1809 – Étienne-Louis Malus publishes the constabulary of Malus which predicts the low-cal intensity transmitted by 2 polarizing sheets^{[ commendation needed ]}
• 1809 – Humphry Davy kickoff publicly demonstrates the electric arc light.
• 1811 – François Jean Dominique Arago discovers that some quartz crystals continuously rotate the electric vector of light
• 1814 – Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered and studied the dark absorption lines in the spectrum of the sunday at present known equally Fraunhofer lines
• 1816 – David Brewster discovers stress birefringence
• 1818 – Siméon Poisson predicts the Poisson-Arago bright spot at the eye of the shadow of a circular opaque obstacle
• 1818 – François Jean Dominique Arago verifies the existence of the Poisson-Arago brilliant spot
• 1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish physicist and chemist, develops an experiment in which he notices a compass needle is deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off, convincing him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a live wire just as light and heat do, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. He also observes that the movement of the compass-needle to one side or the other depends upon the direction of the current.^[xvi] Following intensive investigations, he published his findings, proving that a irresolute electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The oersted unit of magnetic induction is named for his contributions.
• 1820 – André-Marie Ampère, professor of mathematics at the École Polytechnique, demonstrates that parallel current-conveying wires experience magnetic force in a meeting of the French Academy of Science, exactly one week subsequently Ørsted's annunciation of his discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current.^[17] He shows that a coil of wire carrying a current behaves like an ordinary magnet and suggests that electromagnetism might be used in telegraphy. He mathematically develops Ampère's law describing the magnetic forcefulness betwixt 2 electric currents. His mathematical theory explains known electromagnetic phenomena and predicts new ones. His laws of electrodynamics include the facts that parallel conductors currying current in the aforementioned direction concenter and those carrying currents in the opposite directions repel 1 some other. One of the outset to develop electric measuring techniques, he built an instrument utilizing a complimentary-moving needle to mensurate the flow of electricity, contributing to the development of the galvanometer. In 1821, he proposed a telegraphy system utilizing one wire per "galvanometer" to betoken each letter, and reported experimenting successfully with such a organization. However, in 1824, Peter Barlow reported its maximum distance was simply 200 feet, and so was impractical.^{[ citation needed ]} In 1826 he publishes the Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience containing a mathematical derivation of the electrodynamic force police force. Following Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, Ampère agreed that Faraday deserved total credit for the discovery.
• 1820 – Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger, German pharmacist, physicist, and professor, builds the first sensitive galvanometer, wrapping a coil of wire around a graduated compass, an acceptable instrument for actual measurement equally well as detection of small amounts of electric current, naming it after Luigi Galvani.
• 1821 – André-Marie Ampère announces his theory of electrodynamics, predicting the forcefulness that i current exerts upon another.
• 1821 – Thomas Johann Seebeck discovers the thermoelectric effect.
• 1821 – Augustin-Jean Fresnel derives a mathematical demonstration that polarization can be explained merely if light is entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.
• 1825 – Augustin Fresnel phenomenologically explains optical activity by introducing circular birefringence
• 1825 – William Sturgeon, founder of the first English language Electric Journal, Annals of Electricity, found that an iron core inside a helical ringlet of wire continued to a battery greatly increased the resulting magnetic field, thus making possible the more powerful electromagnets utilizing a ferromagnetic cadre. Sturgeon also bent the iron core into a U-shape to bring the poles closer together, thus concentrating the magnetic field lines. These discoveries followed Ampère's discovery that electricity passing through a coiled wire produced a magnetic forcefulness and that of Dominique François Jean Arago finding that an iron bar is magnetized by putting it inside the coil of electric current-carrying wire, but Arago had non observed the increased forcefulness of the resulting field while the bar was being magnetized.
• 1826 – Georg Simon Ohm states his Ohm's law of electrical resistance in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, and also published in his landmark pamphlet Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet in 1827. The unit ohm (Ω) of electrical resistance has been named in his honor.^[xviii]
• 1829 & 1830 – Francesco Zantedeschi publishes papers on the product of electric currents in airtight circuits past the approach and withdrawal of a magnet, thereby anticipating Michael Faraday's classical experiments of 1831.
• 1831 – Michael Faraday began experiments leading to his discovery of the police force of electromagnetic induction, though the discovery may have been predictable by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi. His quantum came when he wrapped ii insulated coils of wire around a massive iron ring, bolted to a chair, and found that upon passing a current through 1 roll, a momentary electric current was induced in the other ringlet. He and then constitute that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, or vice versa, an electrical current also flowed in the wire. He and then used this principle to construct the electrical dynamo, the first electric power generator. He proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not consummate that work. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which were to boss the 19th century. His demonstrations that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, mathematically modeled by Faraday'due south law of consecration, would subsequently become one of Maxwell's equations. These consequently evolved into the generalization of field theory.
• 1831 – Macedonio Melloni uses a thermopile to detect infrared radiation
• 1832 – Baron Pavel L'vovitch Schilling (Paul Schilling) creates the offset electromagnetic telegraph, consisting of a single-needle organization in which a code was used to indicate the characters. But months later, Göttingen professors Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber constructed a telegraph that was working two years before Schilling could put his into exercise. Schilling demonstrated the long-distance transmission of signals betwixt two different rooms of his apartment and was the showtime to put into exercise a binary system of signal transmission.
• 1833 – Heinrich Lenz states Lenz's law: if an increasing (or decreasing) magnetic flux induces an electromotive force (EMF), the resulting current will oppose a farther increase (or decrease) in magnetic flux, i.e., that an induced current in a closed conducting loop volition announced in such a direction that it opposes the alter that produced information technology. Lenz's law is one consequence of the principle of conservation of energy. If a magnet moves towards a closed loop, then the induced current in the loop creates a field that exerts a force opposing the motility of the magnet. Lenz'southward law tin can be derived from Faraday's law of induction by noting the negative sign on the right side of the equation. He also independently discovered Joule'due south police in 1842; to honor his efforts, Russian physicists refer to it every bit the "Joule-Lenz law."
• 1833 – Michael Faraday announces his police of electrochemical equivalents
• 1834 – Heinrich Lenz determines the direction of the induced electromotive force (emf) and electric current resulting from electromagnetic induction. Lenz'southward police provides a physical estimation of the choice of sign in Faraday's law of induction (1831), indicating that the induced emf and the alter in flux have contrary signs.
• 1834 – Jean-Charles Peltier discovers the Peltier effect: heating by an electric electric current at the junction of two different metals.
• 1835 – Joseph Henry invents the electrical relay, which is an electrical switch by which the change of a weak current through the windings of an electromagnet volition attract an armature to open or close the switch. Considering this can control (past opening or closing) some other, much higher-power, excursion, it is in a wide sense a grade of electrical amplifier. This made a practical electric telegraph possible. He was the first to gyre insulated wire tightly around an iron cadre in order to brand an extremely powerful electromagnet, improving on William Sturgeon's design, which used loosely coiled, uninsulated wire. He too discovered the belongings of self inductance independently of Michael Faraday.

Chart of the International Morse code messages and numerals.

• 1836 – William Fothergill Cooke invents a mechanical telegraph. 1837 with Charles Wheatstone invents the Cooke and Wheatstone needle telegraph. 1838 the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph becomes the first commercial telegraph in the world when it is installed on the Dandy Western Railway.
• 1837 – Samuel Morse develops an alternative electrical telegraph pattern capable of transmitting long distances over poor quality wire. He and his assistant Alfred Vail develop the Morse code signaling alphabet. In 1838 Morse successfully tested the device at the Speedwell Ironworks well-nigh Morristown, New Jersey, and publicly demonstrated it to a scientific committee at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The commencement electric telegram using this device was sent past Morse on 24 May, 1844 from Baltimore to Washington, D.C., bearing the message "What hath God wrought?"
• 1838 – Michael Faraday uses Volta's battery to find cathode rays.
• 1839 – Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observes the photoelectric issue with an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.
• 1840 – James Prescott Joule formulates Joule's Law (sometimes chosen the Joule-Lenz constabulary) quantifying the amount of oestrus produced in a circuit equally proportional to the production of the time elapsing, the resistance, and the square of the electric current passing through it.
• 1845 – Michael Faraday discovers that light propagation in a material can be influenced by external magnetic fields (Faraday effect)
• 1849 – Hippolyte Fizeau and Jean-Bernard Foucault measure out the speed of light to exist about 298,000 km/s

1851–1900 [edit]

• 1852 – George Gabriel Stokes defines the Stokes parameters of polarization
• 1852 – Edward Frankland develops the theory of chemical valence
• 1854 – Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, physicist and 1 of the founders of spectroscopy, publishes Kirchhoff'south Laws on the conservation of electric charge and free energy, which are used to determine currents in each co-operative of a circuit.
• 1855 – James Clerk Maxwell submits On Faraday's Lines of Force for publication containing a mathematical statement of Ampère'south circuital law relating the coil of a magnetic field to the electrical electric current at a bespeak.
• 1861 – the commencement transcontinental telegraph organization spans North America by connecting an existing network in the eastern The states to a small network in California by a link between Omaha and Carson Urban center via Salt Lake City. The slower Pony Express system ceased operation a month afterward.
• 1864 – James Clerk Maxwell publishes his papers on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field
• 1865 – James Clerk Maxwell publishes his landmark newspaper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, in which Maxwell'southward equations demonstrated that electrical and magnetic forces are two complementary aspects of electromagnetism. He shows that the associated complementary electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetism travel through space, in the form of waves, at a abiding velocity of 3.0 × x⁸ m/s. He likewise proposes that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and that waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields travel through empty space at a speed that could exist predicted from elementary electrical experiments. Using available data, he obtains a velocity of 310,740,000 thousand/s and states "This velocity is and so virtually that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant estrus, and other radiations if whatsoever) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the grade of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field co-ordinate to electromagnetic laws."
• 1866 – the first successful transatlantic telegraph organisation was completed. Earlier submarine cable transatlantic cables installed in 1857 and 1858 failed afterward operating for a few days or weeks.
• 1869 – William Crookes invents the Crookes tube.
• 1873 – Willoughby Smith discovers the photoelectric effect in metals not in solution (i.e., selenium).
• 1871 – Lord Rayleigh discusses the blue sky law and sunsets (Rayleigh scattering)
• 1873 – J. C. Maxwell publishes A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism which states that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.
• 1874 – German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovers the "unilateral conduction" of crystals.^{[19] [20]} Braun patents the first solid land diode, a crystal rectifier, in 1899.^[21]
• 1875 – John Kerr discovers the electrically induced birefringence of some liquids
• 1878 – Thomas Edison, following work on a "multiplex telegraph" organisation and the phonograph, invents an improved incandescent light bulb. This was non the outset electrical light bulb but the first commercially applied incandescent light. In 1879 he produces a high-resistance lamp in a very high vacuum; the lamp lasts hundreds of hours. While the earlier inventors had produced electrical lighting in lab conditions, Edison concentrated on commercial awarding and was able to sell the concept to homes and businesses past mass-producing relatively long-lasting light bulbs and creating a complete system for the generation and distribution of electricity.
• 1879 – Jožef Stefan discovers the Stefan–Boltzmann radiation constabulary of a blackness body and uses it to calculate the start sensible value of the temperature of the Sun's surface to be 5700 K
• 1880 – Edison discovers thermionic emission or the Edison effect.
• 1882 – Edison switches on the world's first electrical ability distribution system, providing 110 volts direct electric current (DC) to 59 customers.
• 1884 – Oliver Heaviside reformulates Maxwell'due south original mathematical treatment of electromagnetic theory from twenty equations in twenty unknowns into four elementary equations in four unknowns (the modern vector form of Maxwell's equations).
• 1886 – Oliver Heaviside coins the term inductance.
• 1887 – Heinrich Hertz invents a device for the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) radio waves. His receiver consists of a curl with a spark gap.
• 1888 – Introduction of the induction motor, an electric motor that harnesses a rotating magnetic field produced past alternate current, independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla.

• 1888 – Heinrich Hertz demonstrates the existence of electromagnetic waves by building an appliance that produced and detected UHF radio waves (or microwaves in the UHF region). He likewise plant that radio waves could be transmitted through different types of materials and were reflected past others, the key to radar. His experiments explain reflection, refraction, polarization, interference, and velocity of electromagnetic waves.
• 1893 – Victor Schumann discovers the vacuum ultraviolet spectrum.
• 1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X-rays
• 1895 – Jagadis Chandra Bose gives his first public demonstration of electromagnetic waves
• 1896 – Arnold Sommerfeld solves the one-half-plane diffraction trouble
• 1897 – J. J. Thomson discovers the electron.
• 1899 – Pyotr Lebedev measures the pressure of light on a solid trunk.
• 1900 – The Liénard–Wiechert potentials are introduced equally fourth dimension-dependent (retarded) electrodynamic potentials
• 1900 – Max Planck resolves the ultraviolet catastrophe by suggesting that blackness-torso radiation consists of detached packets, or quanta, of energy. The amount of energy in each bundle is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic waves. The constant of proportionality is now called Planck's constant in his honor.

20th century [edit]

• 1904 – John Ambrose Fleming invents the thermionic diode, the first electronic vacuum tube, which had applied use in early radio receivers.
• 1905 – Albert Einstein proposes the Theory of Special Relativity, in which he rejects the beingness of the aether equally unnecessary for explaining the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Instead, Einstein asserts equally a postulate that the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference, and goes on to demonstrate a number of revolutionary (and highly counter-intuitive) consequences, including time dilation, length contraction, the relativity of simultaneity, the dependence of mass on velocity, and the equivalence of mass and energy.
• 1905 – Einstein explains the photoelectric consequence by extending Planck's idea of light quanta, or photons, to the absorption and emission of photoelectrons. Einstein would later receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery, which launched the quantum revolution in physics.
• 1911 – Superconductivity is discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was studying the resistivity of solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using the recently discovered liquid helium equally a refrigerant. At the temperature of four.2 K, he observed that the resistivity abruptly disappeared. For this discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913.
• 1919 – Albert A. Michelson makes the first interferometric measurements of stellar diameters at Mount Wilson Observatory (see history of astronomical interferometry)
• 1924 – Louis de Broglie postulates the wave nature of electrons and suggests that all matter has moving ridge backdrop.
• 1946 – Martin Ryle and Vonberg build the first two-element astronomical radio interferometer (see history of astronomical interferometry)
• 1953 – Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger produce the first maser
• 1956 – R. Hanbury-Chocolate-brown and R.Q. Twiss complete the correlation interferometer
• 1960 – Theodore Maiman produces the showtime working laser
• 1966 – Jefimenko introduces time-dependent (retarded) generalizations of Coulomb's police and the Biot–Savart constabulary
• 1999 – Thousand. Henny and others demonstrate the Fermionic Hanbury Brown and Twiss Experiment

Run into also [edit]

• History of electromagnetic theory
• History of optics
• History of special relativity
• History of superconductivity
• Timeline of luminiferous aether

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Moller, Peter; Kramer, Bernd (December 1991), "Review: Electric Fish", BioScience, 41 (11): 794–6 [794], doi:ten.2307/1311732, JSTOR 1311732
2. ^ Baigrie, Brian (2007), Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective, Greenwood Publishing Grouping, p. 1, ISBN978-0-313-33358-iii
3. ^ Stewart, Joseph (2001), Intermediate Electromagnetic Theory, World Scientific, p. 50, ISBNnine-8102-4471-1
4. ^ ^{a b} The history of the telescope past Henry C. Male monarch, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003 Pg 25 ISBN 0-486-43265-three, ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6
5. ^ Frood, Arran (27 Feb 2003). "Riddle of 'Baghdad's batteries'". BBC News . Retrieved xx October 2015.
6. ^ Pliny the Elder. "Dedication". The Natural History. Perseus Collection: Greek and Roman Materials. Department of the Classics, Tufts University. Retrieved 20 Oct 2015.
7. ^ Schmidl, Petra Thou. (1996–1997). "2 Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. 1: 81–132.
8. ^ The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge (1918), New York City: Encyclopedia Americana Corp.
9. ^ Williams, Henry Smith. "Role 4. William Gilbert and the Report of Magnetism". A history of science. Vol. 2. Worldwide School. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
10. ^ Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010). The Origins of the Telescope. Amsterdam Academy Printing. p. 24. ISBN978-ninety-6984-615-6.
11. ^ ^{a b c} Clark, David H.; Clark, Stephen P.H. (2001). Newton's tyranny : the suppressed scientific discoveries of Stephen Gray and John Flamsteed . New York: Freeman. ISBN9780716747017.
12. ^ Williams, Henry Smith. "VII. The Modernistic Development of Electricity and Magnetism". A history of science. Vol. 3. Worldwide School. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
13. ^ Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. pp. 106–107.
14. ^ Martins, Roberto de Andrade. "Romagnosi and Volta's pile: early difficulties in the interpretation of Voltaic electricity". In Bevilacqua, Fabio; Fregonese, Lucio (eds.). Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and his Times. Vol. 3. Pavia: Ulrico Hoepli. pp. 81–102.
15. ^ Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. p. 108.
16. ^ Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. pp. 84–85.
17. ^ Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. p. 87.
18. ^ "Georg Simon Ohm". St. Andrews Academy. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
19. ^ Braun, Ferdinand (1874) "Ueber die Stromleitung durch Schwefelmetalle" (On current conduction in metal sulphides), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 153 : 556–563.
20. ^ Karl Ferdinand Braun. chem.ch.huji.ac.il
21. ^ "Diode". Encyclobeamia.solarbotics.internet. Archived from the original on 26 April 2006.

Farther reading [edit]

• The Natural History Pliny the Elder, The Natural History from Perseus Digital Library
• The Discovery of the Electron from the American Establish of Physics
• Enterprise and electrolysis... from the Royal Guild of Chemistry (chemsoc)
• Pure Scientific discipline-History, Worldwide School

External links [edit]

• Media related to Electromagnetism at Wikimedia Commons
• The Piece of work of Jagadis Chandra Bose: 100 Years of MM-Wave Research
• Jagadis Chandra Bose and His Pioneering Research on Microwaves

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics

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